Ancient Egypt Archivi

5 Dicembre 20205 Dicembre 2020 Redazione ArcheoMe 4 minuto di lettura

ANCIENT EGYPT | Senenmut, the Queen’s shadow

The life of Senenmut is inextricably linked to that of Queen Hatshepsut. Just mentioning her name inevitably evokes the name of the queen he served. But who was this man? How did a queen with the title of king give him absolute control of the country?

The rise of Senenmut

Senenmut, according to recent studies, was the son of ordinary people, as shown by the title of the parents found in their tomb, not far from the TT71, their son’s tomb, in 1927: his father Ramose is in fact remembered as ‘Worthy’, while his mother Hatneferu is indicated as ‘Housewife’.

They were originally from the South, beyond the first cataract. The family, since the time of Thutmosis I, had settled in Ermant, near Luxor. The young Senenmut had participated in military expeditions in Nubia and had been rewarded with the bracelet “menefert” (“he who beautifies”). When his mother died shortly after Hatshepsut’s coronation, the son moved his father close to his mother.

Senenmut’s influence is demonstrated by his mother’s grave goods, which also included a golden mask and a beetle on the heart, made with serpentine and set in a golden square.

Not far from the Djeser-Djeseru, the funeral chapel of Senenmut, which began two months after the death of the parents, was brought to light. In this chapel are inscribed, in red and black ink, the titles of which he was a proud holder.

An exceptional fact for an Egyptian, Senenmut doesn’t seem to have ever married, so much so that his funerary cult was entrusted to his older brother, Minhotep.

The magnificent wall paintings, unfortunately badly preserved, allow to see six bearers of offerings, probably Aegeans; in fact, in their appearance they remind the Knossos’ bearers of offerings.

The sarcophagus, probably of red quartzite (royal stone par excellence), was adorned with funerary divinities, flanked by Isis and Nephthys and contained the entire chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead (the one with the negative justifications).

In spite of these origins, Senenmut made a brilliant career as an official of the kingdom and, quickly covering all the cursus honorum, he reached the highest offices of the State. Among the many positions he had, we remember that of “intendant of the temple of Amon, director of the fields, gardens and flocks of the double granary of Karnak”. This position allowed him to control the great wealth of Karnak.

He was very intimate with the Queen, so much so that he gave voice to the hypothesis of a love affair with her, of which, however, there is no documentation. Hatshepsut also chose him as architect for the great temple of Deir el-Bahari, whose design, outside the typical Egyptian canons, demonstrates the genius of both the architect and the Queen. However, recent studies seem to diminish the importance of Senenmut in the construction of the temple of the Queen.

Tomb TT 353

Senenmut ordered the excavation of the TT 353 tomb of Deir el-Bahari around the 7th year of his queen’s reign, at the same time as the excavation work on the temple began.

It was excavated deep in the rock, so that the whole funerary complex of Senenmut remained integrated within the complex of the sovereign, i.e. in the subsoil of the first terrace.

falsa-porta — *Panel of the false-door in which Senenmut is represented with his father Ramose and his mother Hatnefer*

The long and steep descending gallery, fifty-three meters long, ends in a very small room, brilliantly decorated with the Book of the Dead, a false-door stele and crowned by an exceptional astronomical ceiling, unique and splendid, magnificently preserved today. This astronomical ceiling is the oldest known in the history of ancient Egypt.

On it are reproduced the twelve months of the lunar calendar, as well as the stars and constellations of the northern hemisphere. Another descending gallery leads us to a second chamber without decoration and from this to the third with a well, also without decoration.

Finally, he became guardian of Hatshepsut’s daughter, Neferu-Ra, who was the second heir to the throne after Thutmosis III, thus demonstrating the great consideration in which he was held at court.

Senenmut e Neferure — *Senenmut was the royal guardian and the monument of him holding a small Neferu-Re shows it (British Museum / CC BY-SA 3.0).*

Suddenly, however, Senenmut, as often happens, fell into disgrace, was relieved of his duties and disappeared from Egyptian history.

Tradotta: https://archeome.it/antico-egitto-senenmut-lombra-della-regina/

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21 Novembre 202021 Novembre 2020 Redazione ArcheoMe 3 minuto di lettura

ANCIENT EGYPT | The metamorphosis of the Egyptian pyramid

The Egyptian funerary architecture developed in monumentality during the Old Kingdom with Djoser, pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty. Thanks to this sovereign, but especially to the ingenuity of his architect Imhotep, we have the transition from the mastaba (Arabic word meaning literally “bench”) to the pyramid, which becomes a royal burial or funerary temple.

The first pyramid

Djoser had the mastaba built inside his funerary complex in Saqqara, on a square plan; in a second time he added a stepped superstructure, raising the monument gradually with other levels, until it reached a height of about 60 meters. For this reason, it was necessary for the construction of the pyramid to choose a place with a solid rocky ground, which was able to support the weight of the structure.

Other pharaohs followed Djoser’s example, having other step pyramids built; then with Snefru, founder of the 4th dynasty, there was a turning point: from a step structure, the pyramid was transformed with smooth faces.

With Snefru’s successor, Pharaoh Cheops, perfection was achieved: the dimensions of the monument, in fact, are the result of complex geometric and astronomical calculations. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century B.C.) states that it took thirty years to build it, involving a hundred thousand men (reliable figures, according to modern historians) for cutting, transporting and laying the stones.

What the pyramid was hiding

piramide interno — *Inside the pyramid of Cheops*

Like the other pyramids, the one built by Cheops was not accessible from the outside, while on the inside it contained some funerary rooms. The cell for the burial of the pharaoh, generally located at the base of the building, here is exceptionally almost at the center, surmounted by 9 granite monoliths. It was entirely covered by slabs of white limestone, on which hieroglyphs were carved. Finally, at the top of the imposing structure the pyramydion stood out, the tip of the pyramid, consisting of a single block of granite covered with electrum – an alloy of gold and silver – which reflected sunlight over long distances.

Egyptian architects designed a sort of labyrinth to try and make the pharaoh’s funeral chamber inaccessible. In spite of these precautions, however, the pyramid was repeatedly violated by grave looters, who, having penetrated the interior, took away everything precious that was kept there. The construction technique was realized through the method of the wrapping ramp, built around the pyramid and made with various layers of bricks, easily removable at the end of the works.

The funerary complexes of the 4th dynasty

The pyramids of Chefren and Menkaure (more commonly known as Mycerinus) in Giza reproduce, on a smaller scale, the features of Cheops’ pyramid, but with a richer aesthetic value, playing on the contrast of color between the granite used at the base of the structure and the layer of limestone above.

complesso funerario Chefren — *Reproduction of Chefren’s funerary complex; below on the right, the valley temple*

Djoser’s successors also added an access ramp and the so-called “valley temple” or “lower temple” (also known as the “welcoming temple”), which became an integral part of the funerary complex; this was a building whose main function was to prepare the deceased ruler for the journey to the afterlife. To make the access easier, an artificial canal was often dug, connecting the Nile to the temple, on whose quayside the funeral procession or sacred boats docked to worship the sovereign.

Tradotto da: https://archeome.it/antico-egitto-la-metamorfosi-della-piramide-egizia/

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14 Novembre 202015 Novembre 2020 Redazione ArcheoMe 2 minuto di lettura

ANCIENT EGYPT | The female universe in Ancient Egypt

The greatness of a civilization is given not only by those who govern it, but it is determined, in good measure, by its own people, who share its splendour and pay for its misfortunes, embracing the destiny to which it is guided, in good as well as in bad government. The Egyptian State, in its two components, male and female, has contributed to make great the pharaohs who have led it in the paths of the different historical events of which it has been protagonist over the millennia.

In ancient Egypt, unlike other ancient cultures, the birth of a female was not considered a misfortune: whatever the sex of the newborn child, in a society with a high infant mortality rate, the birth was considered a blessing of the gods and was accompanied by ceremonies dedicated to the protective gods of the puerpera and the newborn. The patron god of pregnancy was Bes, who was represented as a deformed and bearded dwarf.

Bes divinità parto — Bes, dwarf god protector of pregnancy

The role of women in the Egyptian civilization

The Egyptian woman, in the different levels of society, has been a capable and active interpreter of the political and military choices of the sovereigns, allowing the accomplishment of their strategic designs of imperialistic grandeur. She enjoyed a social status equal to that of man, with a role within society of vital importance and considerable relevance at any level, whether she was priestess, queen, worker or simple wife.

Her role was opposed to that of man, not because she was considered inferior, but because the two sexes were opposed to each other, just as day is opposed to night and light to darkness. Each had specific functions, equally relevant, without overwhelming the other, but both contributed, without antagonisms, to a right balance.

From the social point of view, the woman had an active role and her education was equal to the male one. If gifted, the girls had the possibility to enter the palace and temple schools; this was also allowed to young women of modest origin, in possession of considerable intellectual capacity. In the schools they had access to different levels of education: from middle to specialized.

The “lady of the house”

The Egyptian woman had the same legal position as the man and exercised her main activities in the private sphere, as “lady of the house”. It was not only a formal courtesy title, because, to all intents and purposes, the wife organized daily life and administered common goods. Therefore, one can speak of a certain division of labor based on sex. Nevertheless, often the women of more humble extraction shared the husband’s job, as well as, of course, taking care of typically female chores, such as weaving, cooking, keeping the pantry provided and preparing ointments.

Already in the Old Kingdom the woman was, from the legal point of view, independent: in fact, she could assert her rights in court and freely express her will to dispose of private property. The marriage was sanctioned by a contract that, on the death of her husband, assured the widow her share of the estate.

In the Egyptian civilization, therefore, the woman always played a considerable role, often much more important than in other Mediterranean civilizations.

Tradotto da: https://archeome.it/antico-egitto-luniverso-femminile-nellantico-egitto/

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7 Novembre 20207 Novembre 2020 Redazione ArcheoMe 3 minuto di lettura

ANCIENT EGYPT | Hatshepsut and the damnatio memoriae

Hatshepsut was the pharaoh-woman who reigned over Egypt between 1473 and 1458 BC. Her name is linked to the building program that culminated with the construction of the great Temple of Deir el-Bahari in West Thebes.

Her life

Hatshepsut, exclaimed her mother Ahmes giving birth to her, in other words “She has the face of the Noble Ladies”. Daughter of Thutmose I, from an early age she proved to be more gifted than her half-brothers, but to access the throne she had to marry the eldest of them Thutmose II, physically and mentally weak, who soon left her a widow. He then assumed the regency in place of Thutmose III, but gradually he was acquiring more and more the characteristics of a king: in fact, he was represented with the false beard typical of the pharaohs.

For her coronation the queen had a mythological text written, in which she justified her coming to the throne at the behest of the gods. Furthermore, in this text she claimed to be the result of the union between her mother and the god Amun and that her father Thutmose I had named her his successor before his death.

Despite the apparent success of her reign and a burial in the Valley of the Kings, the monuments dedicated to her were marred after her death with a drastic damnatio memoriae, apparently desired by her co-ruler and stepson or grandson, Thutmose III.

The fact that a woman had become pharaoh of Egypt was very unusual. In the history of Egypt, during the dynastic period, there were only two or three women who actually managed to rule as pharaohs rather than to exercise power as the “great wife” of a king.

Hatshepsut launched a new artistic movement, called for a theological reform, administered state finances with rare effectiveness and organized very profitable expeditions, such as those in the mysterious land of Punt, from which Egyptian ships returned full of incense and strange animals. An activism that undermined the already delicate political-religious equilibrium and that procured her dangerous enemies: the young pupil, the priests of Osiris and all those who could not stand the influence of Senenmut, the powerful adviser who, perhaps, was something more for the Queen.

Architecture

The queen worked in the temple of Karnak, where she had chapels built, a sanctuary for the sacred boat and erected two obelisks. Deir el-Bahari was the site chosen by the sovereign to place her mortuary temple, while her tomb was built in the valley of the Kings.

The Mortuary Temple, also known as djeser-djeseru (“holy among the saints”), is a temple located close to the rocky heights of Deir el-Bahari, on the west bank of the Nile, near the Valley of the Kings. It is dedicated to the solar deity Amun Ra and is located near the temple of Pharaoh Mentuhotep II.

The complex exploits a revolutionary planimetric solution of dividing the structure on different levels, in harmony with the underlying rocky scenario. The temple is considered the point of greatest contact between Egyptian and classical architecture: an example of the funerary architecture of the New Kingdom, it marks a turning point, abandoning the megalithic geometry of the Old Kingdom to move to a building that allows worship active.

damnatio memoriae hatshepsut — Inscription from the Chapel of Anubis, Deir el-Bahari: on the left, the names of Hatshepsut deleted; on the right, those of Thutmosis III left intact.

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31 Ottobre 202031 Ottobre 2020 Redazione ArcheoMe 2 minuto di lettura

ANCIENT EGYPT | Akhenaten and Amarna art

By “Amarna art” is meant the artistic production of Egypt created by Akhenaten, a sovereign belonging to the 18th dynasty. We referred to him as a revolutionary, heretic, monotheist, deformed and certainly an innovator, that not even the damnatio memoriae to which he was subjected was able to erase from the pages of history; indeed, today he is one of the most famous pharaohs of Egypt, along with Tutankhamen.
In Egypt, during the New Kingdom, there was a radical change in the religious field. Amenhotep IV carried out a reform in order to diminish the power of the god Amun and his priests, since they, thanks to the prestige and wealth gained, had become an intolerable alternative to the pharaonic power. This led Amenhotep IV to prefer Aton, the solar disk; in his honour, therefore, he changed his name to Akhenaten, “the one who is pleasing to Aton”, and founded newly in Tell el-Amarna, far from Thebes, a new capital, called Akhetaton, “Aton’s Horizon”.

The new rules of Amarna art

His reform also affected the artistic field: new forms of expression were imposed, far from tradition, aimed at realism (an example is the Bust of Queen Nefertiti, whose serene beauty has been shining for centuries, preserved in Berlin) and the representation of scenes of domestic life of the royal family (such as the limestone stelae, also in Berlin, depicting Akhenaten, his wife and three daughters). These scenes were a real novelty: until then, in fact, they had been judged far too intimate to be reproduced on the walls of public buildings.

As time went by, the realism of the Amarna style became exaggerated, pushing the physiognomic features to the point of deformity. The colossal statue of Akhenaten, from the temple dedicated to Aton in Karnak and currently housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, exemplifies the new artistic rule: it has an unnaturally elongated head on a long slender neck, a face with fleshy lips, almond-shaped eyes, sunken cheeks, cheekbones, nose and chin pronounced; finally, the body with a narrow torso, relaxed belly, wide hips and thighs and thin calves.
Some scholars, assuming that the artists, in the realization of their works, had based themselves on the real aspect of Akhenaten, had assumed that he suffered from pathological problems and congenital deformities, found, precisely, in the lengthening of the limbs and skull.
The alteration of shapes and lines shows Akhenaten’s innovative intent; however, this did not have devastating effects on the rendering of the figure, which, even though it appeared unbalanced, drew inspiration from a fertile creativity and unusual stylistic solutions, which did not depend on any rule. The freedom of expression that the Amarna artist had led to broaden the stylistic paths and themes of representation, including references to royalty, as well as moments of daily life and intimacy of the royal family.

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